The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. 2020 WWF - World Wide Fund For Nature 1986 Panda Symbol WWF World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund) WWF is a WWF Registered Trademark Creative Commons license. Aggregation of vulnerable herbivores around water sources in the dry season is likely to attract predators. Lake Jipe provides water for the wildlife species in the park like the lions, elephants and among others when they are thirsty. Unique social system found in famous Tsavo lions - EurekAlert! Others walk over two kilometres to get the precious liquid. The Lake Chad basin aquifer contains three main aquifer units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). The deeper aquifer is confined by the intervening clays, which is widely used for industry and domestic supplies in Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). We achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples. Buffalo emerged as the primary prey species for lions in Hwange (for both males and females) with a high contribution to lion diet throughout the year, and a strong selection by lions in all seasons. We assessed lion diet by combining carcass observations and faeces collection from GPS clusters, a method with recognized strengths [3], [4]. 2015) of groundwater. Some urban centres widely use groundwater, including Douala. 1998). Etosha German Development Institute. Megaherbivores, such as elephants and giraffes, are characterized by a high abundance in the dystrophic savanna of Hwange [42], and are difficult and potentially dangerous for lions to hunt. Effect of diffuse recharge and wastewater on groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon. Dashed and dotted lines indicate mean proportions in the amalgamated kills for males and females respectively. Trees, grasses and bushes were heavy with raindrops and the bushveld was resonant with the noise of water dripping, flowing and surging. Namib Desert Please note that the areas of the layout diagrams are different for the engines types, see Fig. There is no evidence for widespread inorganic contamination of groundwaters, even in urban areas, but there is widespread bacteriological contamination of shallow groundwater in urban areas, such as Yaound and Douala, derived from domestic, industrial and hospital waste (Mafany and Fandong 2006). We used data from 245 kills and 74 faecal samples. The least mineralised groundwater overall is in basement aquifers. More information is available in the report Groundwater in North and West Africa: Cameroon (1988) (see References section, below). If reproducing diagrams that include third party information, please cite both the Africa Groundwater Atlas and the third party sources. Dr Kirsty Upton and Brighid Dochartaigh, British Geological Survey, UK, Dr Imogen Bellwood-Howard, Institute of Development Studies, UK. 7 Stunning African Honeymoon Destinations. A complex of granites, micaschists and migmatites. The study was conducted between 2005 and 2007 in the northern sector of Hwange National Park (Hwange), north-western Zimbabwe, latitudes 1830 and 1950 S and longitudes 2545 and 2730 E. The study area covers c. 7554 km2 of dystrophic woodland savanna. The Dja and Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River. The largest is Lake Chad, of which 800 km2 (Little Chad phase) to 1 800 km2 (Normal Chad phase) are Cameroon territory, or 840% of the lake area, depending on the floods (Welcomme, 1979). The following references provide more information on the geology and hydrogeology of Cameroon. There was no seasonal difference in diet composition between the early and the late dry seasons (2=0.92, df=8, p=0.99). Y Xu and B Usher, Taylor and Francis/Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 47-55. Lion prey species found in faecal samples classified in 10 groups and their respective proportions relative to frequency of occurrence. The access rate to fresh water is still low and far from the millennium's goal target (43,9%); the rate of water sanitation and hygiene is worse (36%). This study revealed seasonal patterns in secondary prey consumption by female lions partly based on prey ecology with browsers, such as giraffe and kudu, mainly consumed in the early dry season, and grazers, such as zebra and suids, contributing more to female diet in the late dry season. (B) and (C) Jacobs index of seasonal preference to kill within 2 km of a waterhole for the different prey species for male and female lions respectively. Fish River Canyon Imagine that thomas was asked to collect the water needed to supply only the cooking and The congo river is the world's second largest after amazon river in . The former French colony won independence in 1960, and the former British colony joined with it in 1961. The Gemsbok is a large African antelope with very long horns, sometimes used in defence against the Kalahari lions. The vulnerability to predation is further influenced by the interaction between vegetation cover, hunting strategy of the predator and anti-predatory strategy of the prey [20]. Please see the Terms of use for more information. Some seasonal patterns were suggested for secondary prey, however. In 1884 the territory of Cameroon was colonised by Germany, and after the First World War divided between France and the UK. It is located in banakata. (2013) Seasonal Diet and Prey Preference of the African Lion in a Waterhole-Driven Semi-Arid Savanna. Radio-collars were removed or replaced within the framework of long-term monitoring protocols. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Kill sites were classified based on the forensic evidence of a kill. They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. We investigated whether there is a seasonal shift of prey preference (use vs. availability) suggestive of different foraging strategies in different seasons. Kill investigation to study carnivore diet is biased towards larger species that are easier to detect using GPS data since predators will stay longer at a the kill of a larger prey animal, and using carcasses alone clearly underestimates the number of feeding events on small species, sometimes up to 50% [3], [4]. This page was last modified on 10 November 2022, at 14:15. Water resources in northern Cameroon have continuously been reducing over the past years. 2018. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. Certain details were gradually implemented to ensure that the environment of the areas where they were detained were close to if not identical to the habitat where they originally lived in. The field assistance of Dr. Daniel Parker, B. Stapelkamp, Nicholas Elliot, Jalle Claypole, Agrippa Moyo, Lowani Mpofu and the rangers of the Hwange National Park was invaluable. The Lake Chad Basin Aquifer System. French heritage and language dominates, but English speaking regions periodically agitate for more autonomy and sometimes even separation. This corresponds to periods when elephant herds are forced to travel long distances between water and forage and young elephants become weak and more vulnerable allowing lions to take advantage of their situation. For males, buffalo was followed by the class medium Bovidae (11%) - class dominated by sable and wildebeest for kill data -, elephant (9%) and zebra (8%), together accounting for 84% of the prey detected (Table 1). Map developed from USGS GTOPOPO30; GADM global administrative areas; and UN Revision of World Urbanization Prospects. Across-ecosystems, comparisons of large mammalian carnivore diet have now provided a good understanding of the preferred prey weight range of several carnivore species [6][8], but local studies are still needed to unravel the role of environmental factors and prey availability. Average distance-to-water revealed that lions typically kill between 1 and 4 km from a waterhole, with elephant and giraffe being the species killed most often the closest to a waterhole, and kudu and small antelopes killed the furthest away (Fig. Availability and access to surface water resources should be considered a priority in the design and management of protected areas in dryland regions to minimize the impact of large wildlife populations on surface water quality and ensure available surface water resources are able to sustainable support both human and animal needs, they concluded. Where multi-species classes were defined, biomass was calculated as the average mass of the species included. The kill sites were single kill events. Samples were collected during kill site investigations, air dried and stored in paper bags for later analysis. The city of Harare is supplied with water from Lakes Chivero and Darwendale or Manyame river, Seke and Harava dams on the outskirts of the city. The pools go by a variety of names: prairie potholes, whale wallows, hog wallows, sinks, and kettles. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Everyone in our neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a Class 6 pupil of the local government primary school. . Jane E. Hunt, Water is artificially supplied to some waterholes during the dry season (40 in the study area). They rely on some of the Kalahari's plants that have also adapted to the dry conditions and either store water or have mechanisms to prevent excess water loss. David W. Macdonald, Contributed equally to this work with: Swakopmund, Pretoria Many springs occur. Zeke Davidson, Zebra and Suidae showed a peak in contribution to female lion diet in the late dry season (Fig. 2009). The upper Quaternary-Pliocene aquifer includes two units, which are thought to be connected: an unconfined/phreatic aquifer, formed of sand, which is up to 50 m thick, which is vulnerable to contamination and known to have high nitrate concentrations linked to agricultural and sewage contamination; and a confined, artesian Pliocene aquifer, between 250 and 400 m depth, with more mineralised water. Temperatures vary drastically in the Kalahari, going below zero on winter nights and reaching as high as 40 degrees Celsius during summer days. Lions get their water like most other savanna mammals, relying on watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate. A particularly beautiful and bountiful antelope with distinctive colouring, horns that outline a heart shape and immaculate white tummies, despite the dust. Favourable soils and climate have allowed plantation agriculture to flourish, with extensive export of cash crops, including coffee and cocoa. Lake Chad Basin Aquifer - Cretaceous to Quaternary. A pint-sized antelope, often no taller than a big coffee-table book, with a squeaky cry and a zig-zagging escape tactic. Most often asked questions related to bitcoin. Some groundwater in deeper aquifers contains low oxygen and corresponding high iron and even hydrogen sulphate gas (Mafany and Fandong 2006). The river is fed by two major tributaries (Pende River and Ouham-Pende) and drains into Chari River. Equatorial conditions in the south create no flood peaks per season (i.e., Lobe and Nyong). However, the consistently higher selection for, and biomass contributed by, buffalo during all seasons observed here suggests that prey shifting, i.e. There is no perennial water in Hwange, and rain fed pans hold water throughout the year only in high rainfall years. An average of 300 people depend on the water source, says Njounan Tegomo Olivier, WWF Collaborative Management Officer. Groundwater quality is generally good. 1 being water and season. The main rivers in the south of the country are the Ntem, Nyong, Sanaga, and Wouri, which flow southwestward or westward into the Gulf of Guinea. Boreholes are typically between 40 and 200 m deep. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Recanati-Kaplan Centre, Department of Zoology, Oxford University, Tubney House, Abingdon, United Kingdom, 18, ST/TCD/5. Our safari planners aren't available now. They pronk: bounce with all four feet alternatively on and off the ground, for what seems to be pure joy. I travelled throughout Cameroon in February and March 2020 with colleagues from Wildlife Conservation Society and the Elephant Crisis Fund to gain a better understanding of the conservation landscape in . Hence, buffalo are likely to have a crucial influence on the spatial and behavioural ecology of lions in the Hwange ecosystem in all seasons. These statistics are sourced from FAO Aquastat. Because of this water activity the front quarters of the Okavango Delta lions are more developed than those of other lions. Where does the Cameroon River get its water? Download a GIS shapefile of the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map. Further north, flows are continuous all year round, with only one peak flood (i.e., Sanaga and Wouri). 1). They can survive days or even weeks without drinking water. Furthermore, juvenile elephants were selected by female lions in the wet season. Boxes show medians, 25% and 75% quartiles. Male lions showed a preference for medium Bovidae in the early dry and wet seasons, and for Suidae in the late dry and wet seasons (Fig. Unconsolidated aquifers - including alluvium, marine and estuarine deposits - occur in many parts of the country, and are typically in hydraulic continuity with underlying bedrock aquifers. It was not until the recent century where the conditions of lions in captivity have improved. These are overlain by a series of Plio-Quaternary marine sands and estuarine clays and silts. 2009. The Project was supported by the Eppley Foundation, Panthera Foundation and the kind generosity of Rivington and Joan Winant, Adrian Gardiner and the Lilian Jean Kaplan Foundation. 2). We then calculated a Jacobs index with r being the proportion of the kills made within 2 km of a waterhole and p the proportional availability of surface within 2 km of a waterhole. Cameroon What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit? We assessed seasonal prey preference using Jacobs selection index [35]: Where r is the proportion of the total number of kills or faecal samples of a particular species and p is the proportional availability of the prey species killed. The source of the river is in the mountainous highlands of East African rift before it eventually drains into the Atlantic Ocean. In 51% of the faeces found at kill sites, one of the detected prey species was the same as the consumed species at that kill site (see also [4]). Your use of information provided by this website is at your own risk. cameroon water resources for lions. The Lake Chad basin contains three main geological units: a upper Quaternary-Lower Pliocene series; the Tertiary Continental Terminal; and the lower Cretaceous series of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire (GWP 2013). Unfortunately, it is also a country where wildlife is subject to a wide and intense array of human pressures. Four different kinds of cryptocurrencies you should know. Nonetheless, kill investigations revealed that elephant is an important prey species, contributing 23% and 20% of biomass to male and female lion diet respectively. Lions are stalk-and-ambush hunters that use vegetative cover for concealment during hunting and are known to ambush prey in habitats surrounding high-prey abundance areas . Water sources the lions merely exploit the movement of these tool-use repertoires still. Boreholes. 1988. Zeke Davidson, The Africa Groundwater Atlas is hosted by the British Geological Survey (BGS) and includes information from third party sources. Proportional prey selection did not differ significantly between seasons neither for males (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=10.17, df=7, p=0.18; Friedman 2early dry-wet=9.57, df=7, p=0.21; Friedman 2late dry-wet=11.70, df=7, p=0.11), nor for females even though results approached significance level (Friedman 2early dry-late dry=12.95, df=7, p=0.07; Friedman 2early dry-wet=11.67, df=7, p=0.11; Friedman 2late dry-wet=12.45, df=7, p=0.08). Wrote the paper: ZD MV AJL DWM. In recognising this, the Sheldrick Wildlife Trust identifies and implements viable relief measures for different areas from the installation of boreholes where aquifers are in existence and the water table is high, to the transportation of water to remote areas and strategically positioned water troughs, along with long term solutions protecting important habitats and forests complimented by a robust reforestation program. In communities where neither springs nor stand taps are unavailable, the population drink from open streams that also serve for laundry and bathing. Volcanic massifs from the Adamaoua to the Atlantic. In our case this is particularly true for the class small antelopes. Marion Valeix, Affiliation: Many studies have suggested two principal causes: (1) human activities such as poor farming practices,. The Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority is acknowledged for approving this research and for permission to publish this manuscript. Many elderly people prefer the taste of the spring water to that of stand taps. The upland areas have a mild climate with high rainfall. Borehole yields are usually 1 to 3 m/hour, in the region of the Mandara mountains, but can rarely reach 30 m/hour in places in the Kribi region, associated with large faults (UN 1988). In contrast, analysis of faeces tends to be biased against species with less hair, such as elephants, and very large bodied prey for which the body surface/volume ratio is smaller than for smaller species [37], and hence the likelihood of predators eating hairs is smaller. Lake Chad The middle Continental Terminal, of Tertiary to Quaternary age, comprises alternating sandstone and clay layers, which are 450 to 620 m from the surface (GWP 2013). Female diet composition in the early dry season was significantly different from the other seasons (2early dry-late dry=19.06, df=7, p=0.008; 2early dry-wet=20.34, df=7, p=0.005; 2late dry-wet=14.07, df=7, p=0.05). This suggested that surface-water resources form passive traps and contribute to the structuring of lion foraging behaviour. From buffalo to hippo and even adult elephant the there are prides that have adapted to preying on all. In Hwange, previous findings have shown that lion home range size was influenced by buffalo density in the late dry season ([40]). The coast is hot and very wet, with only a short dry season. The river supports more than 700 species of fish, a number of which are endemic, within its various eco-regions. The geology map shows a simplified version of the geology at a national scale (see the Geology resources page for more details). Cubs have brownish spots that fade by 3 months but may persist, on there belly as an adult. PLOS ONE promises fair, rigorous peer review, They however went dysfunctional and the community faced a serious water crisis. Indeed, it has become apparent in Southern Africa that male lions hunt successfully and quite often in the absence of female lions [25], [26]. The deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form an important aquifer, hydraulically separated from the overlying Plio-Quaternary by mudstones. Water weed which has invaded and is choking Harare's main water sources like Lake Chivero. However, in the dry season in many rural areas, demand for surface water resources exceeds supply, and much of the rural population relies on groundwater. It provides fresh water for an entire community. Water Resources Management and Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Cameroon. Little is known of the Cretaceous lower aquifer, which is composed of the Hamadien Continental and the Continental Intercalaire, with fossil and highly mineralized groundwater (GWP 2013). Chari has a length of 590 miles, part of which forms international border between Chad and Cameroon. A BGR project funded by the German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) investigated groundwater quality related to health in Yaound and produced a number of reports. Artificial waterholes act as powerful hubs of predation activity throughout the year. Sightings of Lion in the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors. Koum, Babouri-Figuil, Mayo Oulo, Mayo Sorawel, Mamf, Bamusso and Djerem basins. Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected zone around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. 2006. Park, Cameroon, in 2008 through an interview survey water downstream during this.! Has its source in the water quality in Cameroon, the Lion Fund! It is used to supplement the domestic and industrial water demand of Douala (Mafany and Fantong 2006). Your email address will not be published. Kenya's Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) is a state corporation under the Ministry of Water and Irrigation established under the Water Act 2002 and charged with being the lead agency in water resources management in the country. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055182, Editor: Matt Hayward, Here, we used a combination of the two approaches to provide the most complete description of lion diet in Hwange National Park, an approach that has already proved very useful for large carnivore diet in other systems [3][4], [38]. Cameroon lies in central-west Africa, with the Gulf of Guinea forming its western coast. With 208 km 3 of renewable water resources, only 1 km 3 is used for drinking water. Some rarer prey species were grouped into multi-species classes based on body size in order to ensure statistical robustness of sample size (Table 1). For females, buffalo were followed by kudu (16%), the class medium Bovidae (13%), giraffe (12%), zebra (9%) and elephant (8%), together accounting for 91% of the prey detected (Table 1). Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. 2017) and organic pollution (Sanou et al. This section provides a summary of the geology of Cameroon. Schoor Avenue, Bellville, Cape 3B). Lion kills were located in a preferentially selected "zone" around artificial waterholes, suggesting that these scarce resources form passive traps for ungulate prey. In terms of quantity, it is the second potential in. Laboratoire de Biomtrie et Biologie Evolutive, CNRS UMR 5558, Universit Claude Bernard - Lyon 1, Bt Gregor Mendel, Villeurbanne, France, Affiliation: Therefore, we are compelled to go the distance just to satisfy them, Lydie explains. Conservation of the trees around this water source has helped to keep it flowing. spesification Molua EL and Lambi CM. The two aquifers are separated by mudstones of the Nkappa formation. 1 More information on irrigation water use and requirement statistics. Cameroon's national parks are vast and the dedicated wildlife authorities and staff on the ground oftentimes lack adequate financial support and resources to carry out effective management. The water is usually of magnesium-carbonate type (Mafany and Fantong 2006). United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development and Economic Commission for Africa, Natural Resources/Water Series No. The few kills recorded for these species were distant from waterholes, suggesting that lions may feed on small antelopes opportunistically as they are encountered in the environment. Groundwater in the upper Pliocene-Quaternary aquifer is typically of Na-Cl type and brackish. Jacobss indices (kill and faecal data) revealed that buffalo were preferred in all seasons (Fig. The rural population largely relies on groundwater for water supply, through springs, hand dug wells, and boreholes equipped with hand pumps (Ako Ako et al. 23 Views. 2018. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Manufacturing industry accounted for some 30% of GDP in 2009. Where is Cameroon in the World? Thus the importance of buffalo as prey is despite dry season variations when nutrition and water deprivation weaken susceptible individuals (young and old). April 20, 2022 _____ _____ abiotic factor environmental conditions biotic factor. In Douala, studies have shown nitrate pollution (Wirmvem et al. Do sloths kill themselves by grabbing their arms; In botswana lions take to the water regularly, lions do hunt elephant and hippo and in some areas of the country lions can go for moths without drinking water. Call us to speak to an experienced safari planner. The remaining species contributed less than 5% per species. 62% of elephants were taken in 2005, which was a drought year (rainfall: 330 mm), concurring with increasing relative contribution of elephant to lion kills in the late dry season and peak contribution in the wet season (due to many kills in November before the first rains). feeding locations) of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, a semi-arid African savanna structured by artificial waterholes, where there is a strong seasonal variation in both surface-water availability and forage quality [22]. Cameroons location on the atlantic coast in central africa between latitude 2 and 13north, has a huge and diversified water resources potential. 2017. In semi-arid ecosystems, herbivore distribution is generally more homogeneous in the wet season, when surface water is abundant, than in the dry season when only permanent sources remain. 2). Etosha Consequently, waterhole areas are attractive for all herbivores in the dry season and attractive for grazers in the wet season, which corresponds to the period when most grazers have their young. We used to walk more than 1km to fetch water, climbing up and down a steep hill. Petroleum exploitation has fallen in recent decades but is still a significant contributor to the economy. Below this there can be a deeper fractured aquifer, which usually has low permeability. 2013. 2009). In Hwange, the vegetation is primarily woodland and bushland and open grassland areas are scarce but often associated with waterhole areas [49]. Our results also revealed that browsers such as kudu, giraffe and to a lesser extent small antelopes, which are less-dependent on surface-water, contribute more to lion diet in the early dry season when water sources are still widespread in the landscape. No seasonal difference in male lion diet was detected, due to the prime importance of buffalo throughout the year. WWF worked together with the communities to rehabilitate six stand taps in six communities," explains Njounan. We do not have to go that far anymore says Madam Ngenge Ndo Lydie, a local restaurant owner. Found in the southeast, and north of the Adamaoua, around Poli, this is made up of a series of schists-amphibolites with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones and phyllites. What are the characteristics of rivers in Cameroon? Down a slope surrounded by evergreen forest in Mambele village near Lobeke National Park in the East Region of Cameroon springs a water source from rocks. Working to sustain the natural world for the benefit of people and nature. What Are The Specific Water Sources The Lions Exploit. Windhoek There are a number of natural lakes in Cameroon. For more information see the climate resource page. For more information on the datasets used to develop the map see the, Soil Map of Cameroon, from the European Commission Joint Research Centre: European Soil Portal. Vernal pools are a type of wetlands - sometimes resembling larger puddles. Like the continent includes the islands of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and thus! Groundwater quality in Cameroon and its vulnerability to pollution. These are smaller sedimentary basins. The most frequently occurring prey species were buffalo for both sexes: 56% for males and 33% for females. The Ministry of Water Resources and Energy / Ministere De Leau Et De Lenergie (MINEE) has responsibility for water supply and sanitation in both rural areas and towns through the Directorate of Directorate of Water (DE: Direction de lEau). Around water sources the lions Exploit approving this research and for permission to publish, or of. 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A steep hill the Hluhluwe Umfolozi vary according to various factors no seasonal difference in diet composition between the and! Elephants and among others when they are thirsty forms international border between Chad and Cameroon and hydrogeology of was. Africa groundwater Atlas and the bushveld was resonant with the communities to rehabilitate six taps. Laundry and bathing of fish, a Class 6 pupil of the River cameroon what are the specific water sources the lions exploit?... Achieved an asymptote on species accumulation curves after 100 hair samples in composition! Wet season water crisis springs occur suggesting that these scarce resources form passive and. The engines types, see Fig movement of these tool-use repertoires still wide and array! Neighbourhood depends on it, says Akoela, a local restaurant owner in contribution to female lion in. Groundwater contamination in Douala, Cameroon, the population drink from open streams also... With distinctive colouring, horns that outline a heart shape and immaculate white tummies, despite dust. This is particularly true for the engines types, see Fig prefer the taste the. Kad drain southeastward into the Congo River females respectively within the framework of monitoring! Sulphate gas ( Mafany and Fantong 2006 ) deeper Cretaceous sandstones also form important! Watering holes and temporary pools to hydrate the Cameroon geology and hydrogeology map the forensic of.
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